Blake's Illuminations

These are pictures of Blake's illuminated books, which include "Song's of Innocence" and "The Marriage of Heaven and Hell," the works from which the poems we read for today were taken. Blake did all of these illustrations himself.

Constant

Prior to this assignment, I'd never actually heard of Benjamin Constant. So, after reading Adolphe, I did some basic research. Turns out that the reason I, primarily a student of literature, had never heard of Constant is that his most influential work was done in the field of political philosophy. He is best known for drawing the distinction between Ancient Liberty and Modern Liberty. He defines Ancient Liberty as "a participatory, republican liberty, which gave the citizens the right to directly influence politics through debates and votes in the public assembly," while Modern Liberty was defined by, "the possession of civil liberties, the rule of law, and freedom from too much state interference." Constant was in favor of the latter model, particularly when it came to the governing of his native France in the wake of the Revolution.

Knowing all this, I tried to think about how Constant's political philosophy related to Adolphe. When we meet the protagonist, he is at once shallow and profoundly lonely. He seems to crave human connection, yet is apparently unable to authentically achieve it, as he finds most people distasteful. He finally "...Decided that [he] wanted to be loved, and looked about [him,]" which leads to his discovery of Ellenore, with whom he seems to have a deeply emotional, complicated affair. However, while this may be a matter of translation, or Constant's talents as a novelist, Adolphe's recollections of their love seem to be primarily superficial. His most striking descriptions are his feelings of resentment and limitedness. His descriptions of jealousy take second place. But, I found it difficult to see why he was with her at all--he rarely talks about his reasons for loving her, only that he does. After her death, he laments his newfound "irksome liberty," longs for the "dependence which [he] had so often hated," and complains that there is "nobody to watch over [his] movements now, they interest nobody." Tellingly, the novel ends with Ellenore's hysterical words, instead of professions of emotions from Adolphe. He is, ultimately, cold and supremely self-interested, which seems to be pretty in line with Constant's aforementioned philosophy. His favored idea of society stressed efficiency and order, with an emphasis on the duties of elected officials, as opposed to community-wide participation. Like Adolphe, it seems that Constant felt that people's obligation was primarily to themselves. Interaction with others was essential to keeping things in order, but it was not the foundation of a modern life.

Declaration of the Rights of Man

The democratic aims of the Declaration of the Rights of Man strikes me as its most "modern" aspect. It focuses on the rights of individuals, as opposing to describing the rules put forth by a sovereign figure, and stresses the importance of the common good, instead of focusing on the interests of the elite. Additionally, the basic liberties we associate with a free society--freedom of religion, freedom of religion and speech, due process, etc.--can be found here. The document also seems to advocate for a somewhat pluralist and historical approach to the establishment of the law, subscribing to the idea that a nation is best served by a government that tries to serve the practical needs of the people, instead of expecting the citizens to live under the more abstract, and generally more oppressive, limits associated with a monarchy and aristocracy.